According to Several National Surveys Examining the Value We Place on Marriage and the Family,

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Research Article

When and how does the number of children affect marital satisfaction? An international survey

• Marta Kowal,
• Agata Groyecka-Bernard,
• Marta Kochan-Wójcik,
• Piotr Sorokowski

x

• Published: Apr 22, 2021
• https://doi.org/x.1371/journal.pone.0249516

Figures

Abstract

The nowadays global report attempts to verify the links between marital satisfaction and the number of children as well equally its moderators in an international sample. Information for the study was obtained from our published dataset and included 7178 married individuals from 33 countries and territories. We found that the number of children was a meaning negative predictor of marital satisfaction; also sex, pedagogy, and religiosity were interacting with the number of children and marital satisfaction, while there were no interactions with economical status and individual level of individualistic values. The main contribution of the present research is extending our knowledge on the human relationship betwixt marital satisfaction and the number of children in several, non-Western countries and territories.

Citation: Kowal M, Groyecka-Bernard A, Kochan-Wójcik M, Sorokowski P (2021) When and how does the number of children impact marital satisfaction? An international survey. PLoS One 16(4): e0249516. https://doi.org/x.1371/journal.pone.0249516

Editor: Amy Michelle DeBaets, Hackensack Peak Health, UNITED STATES

Received: February 14, 2020; Accepted: March nineteen, 2021; Published: April 22, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Kowal et al. This is an open access article distributed nether the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted utilise, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: The data can be plant in a public repository under the link: https://figshare.com/south/172d436cf55e289a85d8 nether the name: Marital, Sex, Age, Marriage Elapsing, Religion, Number of Children, Economic Status, Pedagogy, and Collectivistic Values: Data from 33 Countries.

Funding: AG-B was supported by Wincenty Styś's scholarship funded by Wroclaw municipality for the academic year 2020/21.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Paying attention to the lights and shadows of parenthood, researchers emphasize a multifaceted influence of condign a parent on well-being [1–iii], and more specifically, on marital satisfaction [4–vi], especially while the number of children in a family grows [7–9]. When Bowen [x] introduced the family life theory, he surmised that families are complex units that are closely intertwined, with each member having a large impact on others. Unsurprisingly, with more members (e.g., children) of this unit, maintaining a peaceful and healthy state may go even more challenging [11].

Several theories that motivate marital satisfaction enquiry provide rationale to the expectation that as the family (i.e., number of children) grows, the human relationship between spouses is being challenged. One of the most prominent and highly cited perspectives–social exchange theory–builds on Thibaut and Kelly'due south theory of interdependence [12] and suggests that people involve in a particular relationship when this relationship provides a satisfactory costs-to-benefits ratio [thirteen–15]. Equally number of offspring raises, parents invest more and more than time and efforts to accept intendance of the children. Past doing so, remaining resources to being taken care of by their partner may remain deficient. Having more children may be, therefore, seen as a binding factor and a barrier to get out the union, what forms a stable–but not necessarily satisfied–dyad [xvi].

Not only is raising children time-consuming and tiring, it is besides related to a frequent exposure to stressors. Thus, another essential theory on marital satisfaction is the crisis theory [17], which focuses on crisis management and capitalizes on stressful events, coping resources, definitions of events that change stressors' impact, and response to the crisis. With a growing number of children, a number of stressors grows akin. The stressors may outweigh the resources that couple posits at some point. Fifty-fifty if partners are fulfilled as parents, their relational wellbeing may be threatened due to parental distress [18].

Indeed, some research found a negative relation between these variables: parenthood was associated with decreased marriage quality [xix], increased marital conflict [xx], more astringent symptoms of depression [21], and decreased marital satisfaction [22]–especially when pregnancy was unplanned [5]. Other studies suggested a positive or no relation betwixt the number of children and marital satisfaction [ii, 4, v, 23]. For instance, Yu et al. [24] analyzed an impressively big dataset of 72,668 adults and found that being a parent was positively linked to increased self-reported well-existence. Furthermore, Kohler et al. [25] provided show that a offset-born kid increases overall happiness both amongst men and (even more) among women, simply subsequent children do not influence happiness ratings, or may even subtract levels of happiness among mothers.

It seemed that the meta-analysis conducted by Twenge and colleagues [26] could bring final conclusions: the authors suggested that an increased number of children in a family decreases reports of marital satisfaction. But more than recent studies over again showed different directions of this link, especially in the non-Western countries [9, 27–29]. The master limitation of the previous studies is that they were conducted almost exclusively in Westernized samples (eastward.k., [26, 30]), and, therefore, results cannot exist generalized to other societies. The goal of the nowadays analysis is to determine the relationship betwixt marital satisfaction and the number of children, as well as its moderators (previously reported as relevant).

One of the predictors of marital satisfaction, long since identified in the literature, is sex, with men being typically more than satisfied than women [31–33]. Also in the parenting context, the relationship betwixt the transition to parenthood and the pass up of marital satisfaction is stronger for women than men [6, 26, 34]. Co-ordinate to equity theory (akin to social exchange theory), participation in inequitable human relationship is a predictor of distress [35]. Both over-benefitted and under-benefitted partners may exist dissatisfied in an imbalanced relationship [36]. At the aforementioned time, from the perspective of social role theory, the importance of different expectations to fulfill home-related responsibilities varies across both sexes [37]. Men are socially expected to provide for their families exterior of the home, while women are culturally encouraged to stay within the home realms, fulfilling tasks related to housekeeping and childrearing. Different social roles and norms practice not imply that both sexes are as content with the labor segmentation. In some cases, spouses may feel asymmetry betwixt their commitment and investment in the relationship and rearing children. In fact, Gjerdingen and Chaloner [34] continued new mothers' spousal dissatisfaction to insufficient men's contribution to growing household duties, and Dew and Wilcox [6] farther attributed the effect to reductions in wives' quality time spent with their husbands later becoming a parent. Taking less intendance for spousal relationship or having reduced quality time should negatively touch spousal relationship amidst women more than among men, and that dissatisfaction can increase with commitment and fourth dimension devoted to subsequent children. In addition, as women who requite birth to more children announced less attractive to men than those with lower parity [38], such negative feelings of being less bonny may further translate into lower marital satisfaction.

Economical factors are additional primal variables in predicting marital satisfaction [39–41]. Low-income or material hardship is associated with a serious threat to marital quality and stability [42]. Many researchers took under consideration the influence of a spouse instruction level on marital satisfaction [43, 44], but we found deficient data and equivocal results regarding links between the education level and a transition to parenthood [45]. Then far, it was shown that highly educated men benefit more than from fatherhood in terms of happiness compared to their less educated peers; no such link was found among women [46]. On the other hand, Nomaguchi and Brown [47] provided evidence for a different relation: more educated women that had fewer children perceived less benefits from parenting. In this context, education may exist considered not just an obligation to invest in one's own needs, career or childrearing, but likewise as a supportive resource, which gives tools or opens new possibilities. Moreover, fifty-fifty though previous studies provided testify that marital satisfaction may not be related to religious amalgamation, i.east., that Christians, Muslims, and atheists report the aforementioned levels of marital satisfaction [48], some researchers hypothesized that it may be rather the intensity of religiousness that affects the spouse satisfaction and parenthood [half-dozen].

Importantly, all those variables were investigated almost exclusively in Western countries. Meanwhile, social norms build, inter alia, a wide context of specific rules about family, or parenting and marriage human relationship, which are customized to values they promote [9, 28]. The criteria for a satisfying matrimony may vary and rely on a larger cultural context, for instance, whether the society promotes more collectivistic or individualistic values [49]. If individuals profess collectivistic norms, they are more than concentrated on mutual assist, loyalty, and cooperation in intra-group relationships, and considering of preferring more grouping than individual needs, also as getting assistance from relatives with children rearing, this way of life might increment their marital satisfaction [ix]. As most Western countries are extremely individualistic, we aimed to re-examine the link between marital satisfaction and the number of children also in not-Western and collectivistic cultures.

Considering the higher up, we hypothesized that less satisfied with their marriages may exist parents with more than children and facing more material hardship, mothers, less religious, and those with less individualistic values. We had no prior hypotheses regarding links between the marital satisfaction, children and pedagogy. We utilize a large, cross-national dataset in the hope to obtain more generalizable results than previous studies did and provide empirical test to mechanisms suggested by classical theories informing marital satisfaction studies.

Method

The written report protocol received upstanding approving from the Institutional Ethics Committee at the Institute of Psychology at the University of Wroclaw. All participants gave written informed consent in accord with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Participants

Data for the study was obtained from the published dataset [50], which include 7178 married individuals from 33 countries and territories: Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Prc, Croatia, Estonia, Deutschland, Republic of ghana, Greece, Hong Kong, Republic of hungary, India, Indonesia, Islamic republic of iran, Italy, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Malaysia, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian federation, Saudi arabia, Slovakia, Republic of korea, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, and Republic of uganda. The information was collected in 2012 and 2013 and was part of a wide cantankerous-cultural research projection, which investigated, inter alia, romantic relationships [48, 51–54], behaviors [55], and their motives [56] beyond numerous countries and territories. All samples were convenience samples (e.g., students, acquaintances of the researchers, participants of vocational courses, inhabitants of home towns of the researchers etc.). With an exception of two countries (Switzerland and Republic of bulgaria), all participants completed the paper-and-pencil questionnaires. On boilerplate, the participants were 40.7 years sometime (SD = 11.5, range = 17–88), had been married for 14.viii years (SD = 11.vi, range = 0.8–70), had 1.7 children (SD = 1.3, range = 0–12), were moderately religious (median = 4, on a 1–7 point calibration, with higher values representing being more religious), were more individualistic (median = five.v, on a 1–seven indicate scale, with higher values representing being more individualistic), and reported their economical condition as existence average compared with others (median = 3, on a 1–5 point scale, with college values representing being more wealthy than others). More than half participants attained available or master'due south degree (52.half-dozen%). More detailed description of data drove procedures and descriptive statistics are bachelor in Sorokowski et al. [50].

Measures

From the dataset (which can exist found under the link: https://figshare.com/due south/172d436cf55e289a85d8), we selected and analyzed following variables: marital satisfaction, the number of children, and sociodemographic variables (including sex, religiosity, economic condition, instruction, and level of individualistic values). The data from the Matrimony and Relationships Questionnaire (MRQ), developed by Russell and Wells [57], was adopted as an indicator of the participants marital satisfaction level. The authors of dataset [l] used the 9-particular version of the MRQ ("Beloved Scale"), psychometrically appropriate for international use [58–60]. Sample questions from this scale included: "Practise you enjoy your husband's/wife's visitor?"; "Exercise yous savor doing things together?". Participants answered these questions on the five-point calibration, which ranged from "yes (one)" to "no (five)"; answers were recoded so that higher values indicated higher marital satisfaction.

Religiosity was measured using a single item ("Are you religious?"), and responses ranged from 1 (not at all) to 7 (extremely religious). Economic status was measured by asking participants to rate their textile situation on a v-signal scale, where (1) meant–"much ameliorate than average in my country", and (5)–"much worse than average in my country". Answers were recoded so that higher value indicated better material situation. Individualism was measured by a calibration taken from GLOBE survey [61], but we included only items regarding familiar individualism (seven-indicate scale–from 1, "strongly agree", to 7, "strongly disagree"). A sample question from this calibration included: "I retrieve children can live at abode with their parents until they go married" or "I think parents should take pride on the private accomplishments of their children". Higher values indicated higher individualism. For more data come across Sorokowski et al. [50].

Results

Detailed information on the mean number of children beyond countries is presented in Table one. For a graphical representation, encounter Fig ane.

In guild to assess whether the number of children predicts marital satisfaction, we ran a series of multilevel linear models. All predictors were grand-mean centered. As the kickoff step, we ran a baseline model, ignoring the data hierarchical structure with number of children, sex, age, marriage duration, religiosity, education, cloth state of affairs and individualism as predictors of marital satisfaction. In the next stride (model 2), nosotros clustered data in countries and included random intercept. In the third model, we introduced interaction terms (number of children * religiosity / educational activity / sex / economic status / private level individualistic values). In the terminal model, we included random intercept and random slopes, hence, we allowed both intercept and slopes to vary across countries. We compared the models using -two log likelihood (-2LL) with lower values indicating better models. We estimated effects using a maximum likelihood estimator.

Each subsequent model provided ameliorate fit to the data co-ordinate to -2LL; χⁱⁱ(i) = 774.32, p < 0.001 between the first and the second model, χ ⁱⁱ(2) = 23.83. p < 0.001 between the second and the tertiary model and χ ⁱⁱ(5) = 21.98, p < 0.001 between tertiary and fourth model. All steps–accounting for information hierarchical structure, introducing interaction terms and assuasive slopes to vary (and covary with intercepts)–changed significance of the parameter gauge for the number of children as a predictor of marital satisfaction. Results of the terminal model are presented in Tabular array 2. Intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) demonstrated that thirteen% of the variance of marital satisfaction was associated with country level and 87% was assigned to individual level. In the final model, number of children predicted marital satisfaction (β = -0.030, p = 0.048), but the effect was relatively small-scale. Age negatively predicted marital satisfaction (β = -0.010, p < 0.001). Sexual practice was also constitute a meaning predictor (β = -0.010, p < 0.001) with men being more satisfied than women. Remaining predictors: didactics (β = 0.057, p < 0.001), religiosity (β = 0.048, p < 0.001), material situation (β = 0.152, p < .001) and individualism (β = 0.064, p < 0.001) were positively related to marital satisfaction. Wedlock elapsing was not a significant predictor (β = -0.004, p = 0.099). The interactions between the number of children and religiosity (β = 0.012, p = 0.020) / sex (β = -0.040, p = 0.019) / instruction (β = -0.025, p = 0.004) were plant to exist significant, unlike interactions between the number of children and fabric situation and the private level of individualism (p = .634 and p = 0.105, respectively).

Table 2. Results of the multilevel linear model regressing marital satisfaction on number of children, sex, age, marriage duration, religiosity, education, cloth situation, individualism, and number of children x religiosity/education/sex/textile situation/individualism.

https://doi.org/ten.1371/periodical.pone.0249516.t002

Next, in order to suspension downwardly the interactions, we ran a serial of unproblematic gradient analyses to examine the relationship between the number of children and marital satisfaction at mean value and +/- 1 SD of moderators, controlling for other variables. The results showed that there was no effect of the low (-i SD) level of educational activity on the number of children and marital satisfaction (β = -0.007, t = -0.401, p = 0.690), yet, there were significant effects of the loftier and hateful levels of education (β = -0.030, t = -1.974, p = 0.055, β = -0.054, t = -iii.012, p = 0.003, respectively). These results propose that for a group of loftier and mean education, the college the number of children, the lower the marital satisfaction (Fig ii).

Breaking down the interaction between the number of children and religiosity revealed that in participants at high (+1 SD) level of religiosity the number of children did not significantly predict marital satisfaction (β = -0.010, t = -0.562 p = 0.576), even so this relationship was nigh pregnant and negative in participants at mean level of religiosity (β = -0.030, t = -1.974, p = 0.055), and significant at low (-1 SD) level of religiosity (β = -0.051, t = -2.811, p = 0.006) (Fig 3). It implies that amongst respondents with a low level of religiosity, the higher the number of children, the lower the marital satisfaction. Among women, the relationship betwixt marital satisfaction and number of children was significant and negative (β = -0.050, t = -2.896, p = 0.005) but it was non significant for men (β = -0.011, t = -0.594, p = 0.555) (Fig four).

The results show that the variance of both–slopes and intercepts was significant, indicating that the consequence of the number of children on marital satisfaction is unstable across countries. All the analyses were performed in R (version iv.0.3) and in Jamovi (version 1.6.2).

Discussion

Our findings are in line with other research [26, 28], which showed that the number of children can be considered as a global, negative correlate of marital satisfaction. Even though some previous studies found that being a parent (as compared to non-parents) is linked to increased overall well-existence [ane, 2] (and that there are pronounced, cross-cultural differences within this matter, e.g., between American and Chinese adults [62]), the current analyses seem to refute the notion that such beneficial influence of parenthood extends to marital satisfaction. Moreover, as much greater share of variance can be attributed to individuals than to countries, one tin reasonably conclude that marital satisfaction depends more on the individual characteristics than on the values promoted in the state. At the same time, we found that the association between marital satisfaction and the number of children vary substantially across countries, what necessitates further investigations.

Our report provided testify for the complexity and the influence of other variables on the link betwixt marital satisfaction and the number of children, namely, sex activity, education, and religiosity. We observed that a higher number of children was associated with decreased marital satisfaction simply among women. According to the social role theory [37], information technology is women who are culturally pressured to fulfill tasks related to childbearing and housekeeping, while men provide for their families exterior of the home. In such a situation, having more than children generates more home duties for mothers than fathers [6, 34]. At the same fourth dimension, every bit caring for children and their safe is a typical female role [37], men may solely focus on having fun and playing with the offspring [two], and thus, men may experience less distress and, in plough, more positive emotions regarding their spouse. Because the imbalance betwixt spouses' duties related to having more than children, results of the present study are in line with the equity theory [35], which predicts that partners, who invests more in the relationship than their spouses, feel more severe distress.

In improver to the sex differences, our analyses showed the interactive effect of the number of children and the level of parental education on marital satisfaction. Previous findings suggested that higher level of parental educational activity should facilitate family unit size planning and achieving a remainder between familial and personal life goals by both parents [63]. However, our results advocate for the contrary–we observed that the more education parents receive, the lower levels of marital satisfaction they experienced. When higher educated parents have more children, they may encounter more difficulties in balancing various social roles. This situation may result from the limitations of time and personal resources necessary to reconcile satisfyingly fulfilling parental, partner, and professional roles at the level determined by generally available knowledge [64].

We hypothesized that textile status may be interacting with the number of children and marital satisfaction. Surprisingly, we found no support for this hypothesis. Parents of more children, regardless of their material situation, reported lower levels of marital satisfaction. Two complementary mechanisms may explicate these findings. Get-go, according to the restriction of liberty model [26], parents of loftier material status may more than severely perceive a greater restriction of their free time. Instead of pursuing desirable careers or fulfilling dreams that would otherwise be financially affordable, parents focus on their offspring (who crave fourth dimension and attending). 2d, according to the financial cost model [26], having children entails a myriad of expenses. With more children, it is even more difficult to make ends meet. Also, economical issues may be associated with husbands' increased hostility and decreased supportiveness, both leading to wives' perceptions of lower marital quality [39]. On the other hand, Twenge et al. [26] showed that when a couple becomes parents, a relationship between the transition to parenthood and the refuse of marriage satisfaction may be stronger for individuals of higher socioeconomic status. Thus, we conclude that when the number of children increases, neither proficient nor bad textile state of affairs protects spouses from experiencing decreased levels of marital satisfaction. Similarly, in case of individualism. Previous studies establish that parents from Western countries, ordinarily recognized as more than individualistically oriented [49], experience a subtract of marital satisfaction upon birth of their children [26], and thus, we hypothesized that more level of individualistic values may interact with marital satisfaction and the number of children. However, we found no testify for the influence of individualism on this relationship.

Analyzing the bear upon of religiosity on the number of children and marital satisfaction, nosotros observed that religiosity may exist a protective buffer against a marital satisfaction decrease in larger families. Many religious communities stress positive marital and family relations [65, 66], offer different forms of back up to parents [67], and value parenting likewise bringing up children through religious teachings, ceremonies or accommodations to families with children [65, 68]. Furthermore, religious people may not consider maternity in terms of inner conflict between individual aims and parent obligations [6, 69]. On the contrary, religiosity may promote traditional roles (i.due east., being a parent, a spouse), and thus, positively influence the link between parenthood and marital satisfaction [70–72].

The correlations between the number of children and marital satisfaction differed across countries (see Fig 1), beingness positive in few cases (only amid men) and negative in others. Notwithstanding, these correlations were never potent. The plot suggests no emerging patterns that could condition the direction and intensity of these relationships (e.g., a positive human relationship in men in Frg, Nigeria, and Mexico). However, a positive effect of individualism on marital satisfaction suggests that it remains dependent on culturally determined issues. Although individualism did non differentiate the human relationship of our interest, some country-level or other culturally relevant aspects of spouses' operation should be tested in futurity studies. For example, work culture [73], country policies [74] or social equity norms shared within a lodge [36] may explain to a college extent the cultural differences in the role that number of children play in marital satisfaction. Notwithstanding, due to the limitations described below we desire to stress that the present results should be treated with circumspection until time to come cross-cultural studies provide farther support.

Strengths and limitations

Results of the nowadays analysis are not free of limitations. Most importantly, the statistical significance of the observed relationship betwixt marital satisfaction and the number of children was very close to the conventional threshold of 0.05. We cannot exclude the scenario in which the significance of this predictor might have been a result of a large sample size, what required caution in cartoon any general conclusions. Furthermore, the data samples are not fully representative for the whole world'southward population, equally the majority of participants inhabited more than urbanized regions. We were besides unable to analyze interdependent marriage dyads or not-married, cohabitating couples. Moreover, religiosity appeared to be a moderator of the link between the number of children and marital satisfaction, only, unfortunately, it was assessed only by a single question in the survey ("Are yous religious?"), which makes farther interpretations difficult. The partial, declarative knowledge of participants economic condition likewise limits our conclusions. It would be insightful if hereafter studies focused on the age of the children, as it may also impact the human relationship between the family unit size and marital satisfaction. Finally, our study did not focus on very complex relationships between our variables of interest (i.e., three-manner-interactions). We suggest that building upon sound theoretical backgrounds, future studies could form more detailed hypotheses on the coaction between several predictors of marital satisfaction and their temporal dynamics.

On the other hand, in the present analysis we used a big-calibration sample database from unlike regions of the world. All participants answered the same questionnaires, which tried to capture numerous important variables, previously shown to correlate with marital satisfaction. The data was collected in the aforementioned flow of time and originated in different regions of the world. The main contribution of the nowadays enquiry is extending our knowledge on the relationship between marital satisfaction and the number of children and variables that are frequently hypothesized to influence this relationship (i.eastward., sex, religiosity, age, pedagogy, level of individualism, material situation, and marriage duration) in several, not-Western countries and territories. Such insight may be especially important when considering the importance of marital satisfaction on health and well-being both of spouses [75] and their children [76].

Supporting information

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